The Principles Of Reliability And Validity Essay - 928 Words

Introduction If you are looking for scientific proof, then validity and reliability are what you need. In the work by Xie, Huang (2014) they describe the following: The principles of reliability and validity are fundamental cornerstones of the scientific method. Reliability is defined as the extent to which a measure is repeated under ideal conditions. Validity refers to the degree to which a test measures what it purports to measure. Establishing good quality studies need both high reliability and high validity. (p.326). Both of these concepts are worthy of exploration, and understanding them is crucial for evaluating, designing, and performing scientific studies. Reliability Reliability is about consistency. For data to have reliability, it will need stability, internal reliability, and inter-observer reliability. Stability. If a measure does not fluctuate over time, it is considered to have stability. Data collected at one period of time and then collected again at a different period in time will not have a great deal of variability. Stability can be tested by administering a test at one point in time and then re-administering the same test under the same conditions. Internal Reliability Internal reliability. This refers to the scale that is used to measure data. If the scale is consistent, then it is said to have internal reliability. We need to be sure that whatever variation we are measuring is actually produced by the variables, not by theShow MoreRelatedExploring Reliability and Validity765 Words   |  4 PagesExploring Reliability and Validity Lynetric Rivers Liberty University Abstract This paper will focus on the types of reliability and validity used in the Values and Motives Questionnaire. Also this writer will be investigating areas of concerns and strengths as it relates to the Values and Motives Questionnaire, well as formulating an opinion of the test (VMQ) with the material presented. This writer will further conveying information concerning the sample size, nature of population thatRead MoreSelection Interaction Of Selection And Selection920 Words   |  4 PagesSelection Interaction The last threat to internal validity is ‘selection interaction’. It is the interaction of the other threats with the selection threat. The most common of these threats is the interaction of selection threat with maturation. This combination of selection-maturation threat is concerned with different rates of growth between the two groups between the pre and post test (Slack and Draugalis, 2001). External Validity External validity can be defined as the ability of a research designRead MoreThe Ethics And Public Policies1233 Words   |  5 PagesWhen studying personality psychology, a researcher uses theories, methods, and relies heavily on ethics, reliability, and validity. Using the â€Å"LOTS of data† acronym, personality researchers gather information to study people. These include, L-data (life record data), O-data (observation data), T-data (Test data) and S-data (self-report data). (Cervone Pervin, 2013) Each method has strengths and weaknesses. As well as â€Å"LOTS†, researchers must form a theory to â€Å"decide what to measure and how to measureRead MoreExploring Reliability and Validity1068 Words   |  5 Pagesï » ¿ Exploring Reliability and Validity- Values and Motives Questionnaire Exploring Reliability and Validity- Values and Motives Questionnaire The Values and Motives Questionnaire, also known as the Values and Motives Inventory, is designed to examine a person’s motivation in relation to his values and activities. In order to ensure a comprehensive understanding of values, the VMQ assess three distinct areas, including: interpersonal, intrinsic, and extrinsic. Interpersonal values, accordingRead MoreReliability and Validity Paper1289 Words   |  6 PagesReliability and Validity Paper University of Phoenix BSHS 352 The profession of human service uses an enormous quantify of information to conduct test in the process of service delivery. The data assembled goes to a panel of assessment when deciding the option that will best fit the interest of the population, or the experiment idea in question. The content of this paper will define, and describe the different types of reliability, and validity. In addition display examples of data collectionRead MoreEssay on validity reliability1475 Words   |  6 Pagesï » ¿VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY For the statistical consultant working with social science researchers the estimation of reliability and validity is a task frequently encountered. Measurement issues differ in the social sciences in that they are related to the quantification of abstract, intangible and unobservable constructs. In many instances, then, the meaning of quantities is only inferred. Let us begin by a general description of the paradigm that we are dealing with. Most concepts in the behavioralRead MoreAn Empirical Study Of Local Maori Residents Perceptions Of Film Tourism On New Zealand1541 Words   |  7 Pagesepistemologies of positivism and realism (Jennings, 2001). As part of the quantitative methodology, the research will make sure to measure the validity and reliability of the findings provided by the data (Angen, 2000). In terms of measuring error, reliability and validity, measurement of validity will look for systematic errors in the results, whereas reliability will look for random errors in the results (Adcock Collier, 2001). The key method of data collection for this research will be a survey/questionnaireRead MoreHow Does Opinionated Responses Affect Job Performance827 Words   |  4 Pagescauses reference checkers to always be obtaining specific behavioral example with a general consensus from other references. Future employee success was found, â€Å"a meta-analysis’s low validity is largely due to four main problems with references and letters of recommendation: leniency, knowledge of the applicant, low reliability, and extraneous factors involved in writing and reading such letters† (Aamodt, 2016, p. 161). A letter of recommendation has a great chance of developing into one predictor ofRead MoreIssues in Psychological Testing Worksheet831 Words   |  4 Pagespsychological testing, which constitute ethical principles for the profession. The second source of ethical principles associated to testing is the American Psychological Association’s (APA, 2002) Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (Hogan, 2007). Competence is a very important ethical principle of psychological testing. Psychologist should establish competence in assessment concepts and methodology. The concepts include reliability, validity, norms, and test construction. TechnicalRead MoreSystematic Procedure To Collect Essential Data And These1345 Words   |  6 PagesStandardization refers to proper item selection, high reliability and validity of the instrument to be used in collection of data. And second one is construction of a tool by researcher for present study, constructing of tool for the study needs lot of care and caution . Construction of tool is a time taking and expansive affair number of steps to be followed such as piloting of the pool of questions, difficulty value, difficulty index, validity and reliability has to observed, tested by researcher. Consultation

The Importance Of Management And The Success Of A Company

Evaluating the importance of management and integrity as essential elements to the success of a company Introduction When it comes to the coordination of activities of an or organization or a company in order to achieve its desired objectives, the importance of management should never be underestimated, management itself is a large and complex topic with all organizations having its goals and objective in which its management process will need to attain desired success for the company, using Global logistics management as an anchor point in understanding the importance of management for the success of a company, we need to understand that the world has become a globally linked environment, economic freedom has uncompromisingly lifted the barriers between countries. Evaluation In order to deal with the ever growing changes in competition in the market, the company must take into consideration the speed, efficiency, and other conditions in the operation of strategies, and in crossing these socio economic barriers management plays a really important role, in the deployment of strategic plan s and objectives to deal with each issue that rises from every and each one of these barriers, therefore the industry needs to pay attention to the vertical integrative relationship among upstream suppliers, midstream retailers, as well as downstream retail customers, the transformational process of the global industry, and the need of the logistics management system is graduallyShow MoreRelatedSQSM OM Starbucks1486 Words   |  6 Pagesï » ¿Student Assignment Covering Form Course/Unit Information Course MBA-On line Unit No. Unit 11 Unit Name Strategic Quality and Systems Management Unit code H/602/2327 Batch E11-E41-SQSM1406 Instructor Information Name Dr. Indranil Bose Phone +971 55 9860258 Skype Email indranil@mywestford.com,indranil@westford.org.uk Assignment Information Full/ Part Assignment Part Assignment Date Assignment Issued 9-06-2014 Date Assignment Due Task-1: 24-06-2014 Student Information (To be filledRead MoreFunctions And Functions Of Management1113 Words   |  5 PagesThere are four primary functions involving management, which are considered the very life line and it’s existent. These four functions are instrumental and detrimental to the success and longevity of any company. Without these vital staples, a company is doomed before it is birth, and they are planning, organizing, leading and controlling. However, there is another essential component to the functions of management, and it is the important of diversity. In this paper I will identify the detailedRead MoreImportance of Project Management1533 Words   |  6 PagesProject Management Introduction Project management is one of the most important activities that companies develop. This is because their activity is divided into several projects in order to better manage their resources. This also allows them to improve their performance. In addition to this, companies use project management in order to increase the efficiency of their employees. By working in projects, employees can develop a series of skills that allow them to improve their work. ThereforeRead MoreMgt 498963 Words   |  4 PagesStrategic Management and Process Paper The strategic management process is important to the success of any company. Throughout the following paragraphs, the paper will discuss the primary components of the strategic management process. The paper will indicate the importance of why a company should use the strategic management process. Finally, the paper will close with the discussion of the research that found regarding Apple describing the strategic management process that the company uses in itRead MoreThe Importance Of Management At Mcdonald s And Google Essay1600 Words   |  7 PagesIn what ways are management of companies different or how are they similar to one another? And what is the importance of management in how a company runs nowadays? Many of us question about why knowing the history of management is important to Managers? According to (Samson et al, 2012, Page 53) â€Å"A historical perspective provides a broader way of thinking; a way of searching for patterns and determining whether they recur across time periods.† In the history of management, many trends have appearedRead MoreThe Value Of Good Management1664 Words   |  7 Pagescompetition among companies is likely to get tougher. In the development of companies, good management play an important role in a company achieving success, which means making a correct decision in order to achieve a particular purpose, plan, organize, direct, operate and control process. The purpose of good management is efficiency and benefit. The key of management is people and the principle of management is to organization, organization s centre is people. The essence of good management is the collectionRead MoreStrategic Management: Crafting and Executing Strategy1252 Words   |  5 Pagespurpose of this report is to present the importance of strategic planning for a business organization. The industry chosen for this report is airline industry and the company name is Asian Airlines. The report starts with a strong argument supporting why and how a strategic plan is important for an airline business and proceeds by discussing the mission and vision statement for Asian Airlines. The next section establishes five key objectives for the company encompassing operational, financial, andRead MoreStrategic Human Resource Management Case Study1167 Words   |  5 PagesStrategic Human Resource Management In today’s business world, the most powerful asset to a company and what deserves the most attention are their employees. Businesses strive for a high profitable environment by sustaining a competitive edge in the market that they operate. There are a lot of factors that drive a businesses’ success level, but the employees are by far the most vital resource to a company’s well being. Research has shown that productivity and overall performance are related to theRead MoreThe Long Term Performance And Operational Success Of A Firm1691 Words   |  7 Pagesbenefits of strategic management is one of the key theme of the chapter and it is important for the long-term performance and operational success of a firm. A firm must adapt to the changing market and technological environment is another major concept that is explained briefly in the chapter. Strategic management provides a clear sense of strategic vision for the firm, sharper focus on what is important, and an improved understanding of a rapidly changing environment. Importance of innovation is anotherRead MoreAction Adventures 21353 Words   |  6 Pagesopportunities: o Identify the major issues and or opportunities that the company faces based on your analysis above. o Generate a hypothesis surrounding each issue and research questions to use for conducting analysis. o Identify the circumstances surrounding each issue; classify the circumstances; attribute the importance of each classification; and test the accuracy of the importance for each classification. Proposed Business Action Adventures; Mission, Vision

Essay on Psychological Profiling By Myassignmenthelp.com

Question: Write an essay on Psychological Profiling? Answer: Key concepts of psychological profiling: As per the David Canters Investigative Psychology (DCIP), the main assumptions are highlighted through the subsections as interpersonal coherence, time and place importance, criminal characteristics and criminal career. Going by the DCIP 1st assumption, a normal dealing of the victims by the criminals as with other persons in daily life prevents the identification of criminals through behavioral observation. Clues about personal life and residence of the offender are assumed through the time and place as per 2nd assumption (Canter and Alison, 2012). The 3rd assumption emphasizes on relating the crime and offender to let the difference identified to lead to a classification system. The FBI crime scene analysis identifies the organized, disorganized and mixed types of crime typologies based on differences. David Canter however, rejected it due to the characteristic of overlapping. The 4th assumption of DCIP is the criminal career of the offender based on which, the nature and types of behavioral pattern of the crime is assessed. The Circle theory on the other hand, holds the view of considering crimes to possess a pattern and not being random (Tedeschi, 2013). The Five-Factor model resolves the issue of overlapping by using its five factors of personality traits that helps in description of human personality. The acronym OCEAN (Openness to experience, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness and Neuroticism) can identify the factors (Chiaburu et al. 2011). Identification of criminals through psychological profiling: The theories as DCIP enable the conduction of psychological profiling that are helpful in developing profiles for rapists, murderers and other criminals to apprehend them. As per this theory, the characteristics of the crime are well observed and analyzed to identify the personality, behavior, geographic location and demographic identifications of the criminal. Gardner (2011) asserted that the quality of the data retrieved dictates the process of profiling. The psychological profiling refers to the sketching of the behavioral aspect of the suspected individual. In order to generate a profile, the process initiates with an extensive analysis of the nature of the concerned criminal act and comparing it to the previous similar criminal events. Performing an in-depth analysis of the actual crime scene helps in the identification of the significant facts and details indicating the various aspects of the prospective offender. Analysing the background and activities of the victim enables the identification of possible motives and connections for the crime. Alison and Rainbow (2011) supported it by stating that it assist in analysis of the prospective factors motivating the offender towards the criminal act. The profiling process concludes with the development of the descriptive factors for the offender based on the characteristics identified and compared to former cases. Identification and evaluation of behavioral patterns through profiling research: Based on the Canters Circle Theory of psychological profiling, the two major models describe the spatial behavior of the offender. The Marauder model and the Commuter model are 2 parts of this theory (Canter, 2011). The M-model stating the movement of an offender starting closer to home to the outer range of circle to the crime spot identifies the geographic descriptors to locate the offender, predicting the style of offence committed. The C-model on the other hand, stating that the offenders tend to travel from distant place to closer criminal spots related to their home base to commit the crime, thus identifying a distinct behavioral pattern of the offender. The circle theory uses the offenders previously identified crimes to predict the residential base of the offender. It constructs a circle for the criminals hypothetical range of crime (Van Daele and Vander Beken, 2011). It thus, identifies the relation between the residential base and criminal range of the criminals through the M-model and C-model of spatial behavior. Another theory DCIP, provide description and classification of the prime matters to consider in criminal profiling. It relates the criminals with their activities. With a consideration of the major factors, the theory relates the offender with the evidences found in the crime scene. The behavioral pattern of the criminal is assessed through the close and deep observation of the evidences at the crime scene. The removal of evidence in a planned way, or leaving of clues through evidences denotes the specific patterns of behavior of the offender (Youngs and Canter, 2012). Strengths and weaknesses of 2 psychological theories in terms of appropriateness and effectiveness relating to criminal profiling: David Canters Investigative Psychology theory is highly efficient in identifying the potential offenders based on their psychological profiling. The CAPPS (Computer Aided Passenger Prescreening System) of criminal profiling developed at American Airlines Flight 77 at the Dulles Airport was seen to be able to identify two of the terrorists attacking the pentagon. However, a major weakness of this theory is that due to the broadness of the profiling, several innocent individuals end up with questioning and detention uselessly thus wasting time and energy along with posing an honor risk to those people (Alison and Rainbow, 2011). It raises the ethical issues of detaining an innocent. This theory takes into account the probable consistency of an offender from one criminal act to another. The risk of changes in the criminals behavior over time is a major weakness that renders this theory less effective in the profiling process. Taking the Circle theory of criminal profiling, the home location of an offender is efficiently identified by the examination of the evidences at crime scene. With the occurrence of each crime in a series, the locating efficiency becomes more specific (Ainsworth, 2013). Through mapping of the crime locations, it helps in identifying the base of the offender. Although the theory is efficient in locating the serial criminals as rapists or murderers but it fails to locate the one time criminals efficiently due to lack of previous or future criminal acts. The theory faces restriction while applying in a rural area due to limited residential search in the implied 2 miles radius of its circle. It also suffers from a cloud of non-clearance regarding the labeling of the offenders (Mohler and Short, 2012). References Ainsworth, P. (2013).Offender Profiling Crime Analysis. Willan Alison, L., and Rainbow, L. (Eds.). (2011).Professionalizing offender profiling: Forensic and investigative psychology in practice. Taylor Francis. Canter, D. V. (2011). Resolving the offender profiling equations and the emergence of an investigative psychology.Current Directions in Psychological Science,20(1), 5-10. Canter, D., and Alison, L. (Eds.). (2012).Profiling in policy and practice(Vol. 2). Ashgate Publishing, Ltd Chiaburu, D. S., Oh, I. S., Berry, C. M., Li, N., and Gardner, R. G. (2011). The five-factor model of personality traits and organizational citizenship behaviors: a meta-analysis.Journal of Applied Psychology,96(6), 1140. Gardner, H. (2011).Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. Basic books. Mohler, G. O., and Short, M. B. (2012). Geographic profiling from kinetic models of criminal behavior.SIAM Journal on Applied Mathematics,72(1), 163-180. Tedeschi, J. T. (Ed.). (2013).Impression management theory and social psychological research. Academic Press Van Daele, S., and Vander Beken, T. (2011). Outbound offending: The journey to crime and crime sprees.Journal of environmental psychology,31(1), 70-78. Youngs, D., and Canter, D. V. (2012). Narrative roles in criminal action: An integrative framework for differentiating offenders.Legal and Criminological Psychology,17(2), 233-249.

Wacc for Fiat Group free essay sample

The WACC is the weighted average cost of capital. It is a calculation of the firms cost of capital taking into account the relevant weight of equity and debt as a proportion of the total. The cost of equity or KE calculated using a risk free rate example German 5yr government bond, the firm’s beta and the return on the market. The firm’s beta is a calculation of the firms exposure to the market, a beta of less than 1 indicates that the firm is not as influenced by external factors as the average firm in that market. A beta greater than 1 indicates that the firm is more heavily exposed to market factors than the average firm in that market. The formula I will be using to calculate the cost of equity is the CAP-M formula and is as follows; KE = RF + B (RM – RF) RF = Risk free rate, B = Firm’s Beta, RM = Return on the market The cost of debt or KD is calculated by finding the internal rate of return for all the firms bonds. We will write a custom essay sample on Wacc for Fiat Group or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page First the coupon on the bond is found for each of the remaining years until maturity, then we deduct tax, finally we choose test two discount factors and put our findings into the following formula; IRR = DCF1 + (DCF2 – DCF1) * NPV1 – 0 / NPV1 NPV2 Once we have found our KE and KD we must find the weights of both the equity and debt capital. Finally all of this information is entered into our WACC formula which is as follows where MV is is the market value of the company; WACC = (KE * MV of equity / MV of company) + (KD * MV of debt / MV of company) Cost of Debt I also enjoyed, whilst I found quiet difficult, the level of personal opinion that goes into a report like this. I was very interested in the different figures I found for Fiats beta, I chose a high beta of 1. 62 due to the fact that the motor industry is so volatile as seen by the effect of the recent economic crash on car sales. Also the sharp turn that the price oil can make has a large impact on the motor industry, much more so than the effect on other manufacturing industries as not only does Fiat use oil in the production of its products but its products also require it to function. I ran into a few difficulties at the start mainly when it came to the choosing of a company to research. At first I choose Ryanair but as Ryanair do not have any issued bonds I decided to look into another company at least for my first attempt of a report of this nature. The main thing I gained from doing this report was the ability to research a company, at first I found it very difficult and time consuming just trying to retrieve figures that I thought were right.

Wacc for Fiat Group free essay sample

The WACC is the weighted average cost of capital. It is a calculation of the firms cost of capital taking into account the relevant weight of equity and debt as a proportion of the total. The cost of equity or KE calculated using a risk free rate example German 5yr government bond, the firm’s beta and the return on the market. The firm’s beta is a calculation of the firms exposure to the market, a beta of less than 1 indicates that the firm is not as influenced by external factors as the average firm in that market. A beta greater than 1 indicates that the firm is more heavily exposed to market factors than the average firm in that market. The formula I will be using to calculate the cost of equity is the CAP-M formula and is as follows; KE = RF + B (RM – RF) RF = Risk free rate, B = Firm’s Beta, RM = Return on the market The cost of debt or KD is calculated by finding the internal rate of return for all the firms bonds. We will write a custom essay sample on Wacc for Fiat Group or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page First the coupon on the bond is found for each of the remaining years until maturity, then we deduct tax, finally we choose test two discount factors and put our findings into the following formula; IRR = DCF1 + (DCF2 – DCF1) * NPV1 – 0 / NPV1 NPV2 Once we have found our KE and KD we must find the weights of both the equity and debt capital. Finally all of this information is entered into our WACC formula which is as follows where MV is is the market value of the company; WACC = (KE * MV of equity / MV of company) + (KD * MV of debt / MV of company) Cost of Debt I also enjoyed, whilst I found quiet difficult, the level of personal opinion that goes into a report like this. I was very interested in the different figures I found for Fiats beta, I chose a high beta of 1. 62 due to the fact that the motor industry is so volatile as seen by the effect of the recent economic crash on car sales. Also the sharp turn that the price oil can make has a large impact on the motor industry, much more so than the effect on other manufacturing industries as not only does Fiat use oil in the production of its products but its products also require it to function. I ran into a few difficulties at the start mainly when it came to the choosing of a company to research. At first I choose Ryanair but as Ryanair do not have any issued bonds I decided to look into another company at least for my first attempt of a report of this nature. The main thing I gained from doing this report was the ability to research a company, at first I found it very difficult and time consuming just trying to retrieve figures that I thought were right.

Wacc for Fiat Group free essay sample

The WACC is the weighted average cost of capital. It is a calculation of the firms cost of capital taking into account the relevant weight of equity and debt as a proportion of the total. The cost of equity or KE calculated using a risk free rate example German 5yr government bond, the firm’s beta and the return on the market. The firm’s beta is a calculation of the firms exposure to the market, a beta of less than 1 indicates that the firm is not as influenced by external factors as the average firm in that market. A beta greater than 1 indicates that the firm is more heavily exposed to market factors than the average firm in that market. The formula I will be using to calculate the cost of equity is the CAP-M formula and is as follows; KE = RF + B (RM – RF) RF = Risk free rate, B = Firm’s Beta, RM = Return on the market The cost of debt or KD is calculated by finding the internal rate of return for all the firms bonds. We will write a custom essay sample on Wacc for Fiat Group or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page First the coupon on the bond is found for each of the remaining years until maturity, then we deduct tax, finally we choose test two discount factors and put our findings into the following formula; IRR = DCF1 + (DCF2 – DCF1) * NPV1 – 0 / NPV1 NPV2 Once we have found our KE and KD we must find the weights of both the equity and debt capital. Finally all of this information is entered into our WACC formula which is as follows where MV is is the market value of the company; WACC = (KE * MV of equity / MV of company) + (KD * MV of debt / MV of company) Cost of Debt I also enjoyed, whilst I found quiet difficult, the level of personal opinion that goes into a report like this. I was very interested in the different figures I found for Fiats beta, I chose a high beta of 1. 62 due to the fact that the motor industry is so volatile as seen by the effect of the recent economic crash on car sales. Also the sharp turn that the price oil can make has a large impact on the motor industry, much more so than the effect on other manufacturing industries as not only does Fiat use oil in the production of its products but its products also require it to function. I ran into a few difficulties at the start mainly when it came to the choosing of a company to research. At first I choose Ryanair but as Ryanair do not have any issued bonds I decided to look into another company at least for my first attempt of a report of this nature. The main thing I gained from doing this report was the ability to research a company, at first I found it very difficult and time consuming just trying to retrieve figures that I thought were right.

Learning About German Dialects

Learning About German Dialects Youre not always going to hear  Hochdeutsch German-learners who step off the plane in Austria, Germany, or Switzerland for the first time are in for a shock if they know nothing about  German dialects. Although standard German (Hochdeutsch) is widespread and commonly used in typical business or tourist situations, there always comes a time when you suddenly cant understand a word, even if your German is pretty good. When that happens, it usually means you have encountered one of the many dialects of German. (Estimates on the number of German dialects vary, but range from about 50 to 250. The large discrepancy has to do with the difficulty in defining the term dialect.) This is a perfectly understandable phenomenon if you realize that in the early middle ages in what is now the German-speaking part of Europe there existed ONLY the many different dialects of the various Germanic tribes. There was no common German language until much later. In fact, the first common language, Latin, was introduced by the Roman incursions into the Germanic region, and one can see the result in German words like  Kaiser  (emperor, from Caesar) and  Student. This linguistic patchwork also has a political parallel: there was no country known as Germany until 1871, much later than most of the other European nation-states. However, the German-speaking part of Europe does not always coincide with current political borders. In parts of eastern France in the region known as Elsace-Lorraine (Elsaß) a German dialect known as Alsatian (Elsssisch) is still spoken today. Linguists divide the variations of German and other languages into three main categories:Dialekt/Mundart  (dialect),  Umgangssprache  (idiomatic language, local usage), and Hochsprache/Hochdeutsch  (standard German). But even linguists disagree about the precise borderlines between each category. Dialects exist almost exclusively in spoken form (despite transliteration for research and cultural reasons), making it difficult to pin down where one dialect ends and another begins. The Germanic word for dialect,  Mundart,  emphasizes the word of mouth quality of a dialect (Mund   mouth). Linguists may disagree on a precise definition of just what a dialect is, but anyone who has heard the  Plattdeutsch  spoken in the north or the  Bairisch  spoken in the south knows what a dialect is. Anyone who has spent more than a day in German Switzerland knows that the spoken language,Schwyzerdytsch,  is quite different from the  Hochdeutsch  seen in Swiss newspapers such as the  Neue Zà ¼rcher Zeitung  . All educated speakers of German learn  Hochdeutsch  or standard German. That standard German may come in various flavors or accents (which is not the same thing as a dialect).  Austrian German, Swiss (standard) German, or the  Hochdeutsch  heard in Hamburg versus that heard in Munich may have a slightly different sound, but everyone can understand each other. Newspapers, books, and other publications from Hamburg to Vienna all display the same language, despite minor regional variations. (There are fewer differences than those between British and American English.) One way to define dialects is to compare which words are used for the same thing. For example, the common word for mosquito in German may take any of the following forms in various German dialects/regions:  Gelse, Moskito, Mugge, Mà ¼cke, Schnake, Staunze.  Not only that, but the same word may take on a different meaning, depending on where you are.  Eine (Stech-) Mà ¼cke  in northern Germany is a mosquito. In parts of Austria the same word refers to a gnat or house fly, while  Gelsen  are mosquitos. In fact, there is no one universal term for some German words. A jelly-filled doughnut is called by three different German names, not counting other dialectical variations.Berliner, Krapfen  and  Pfannkuchen  all mean doughnut. But a  Pfannkuchen  in southern Germany is a pancake or crepe. In Berlin the same word refers to a doughnut, while in Hamburg a doughnut is a  Berliner. In the next part of this feature, well look more closely at the six major German dialect branches that extend from the German-Danish border south to Switzerland and  Austria, including a German dialect map. Youll also find some interesting related links for German dialects. German Dialects If you spend any time in almost any part of the German  Sprachraum  (language area) you will come into contact with a local dialect or idiom. In some cases, knowing the local form of German can be a matter of survival, while in others its more a matter of colorful fun. Below we briefly outline the six major German dialect branches-running generally from north to south. All are subdivided into more variations within each branch. Friesisch (Frisian) Frisian is spoken in the north of Germany along the North Sea coast. North Frisian is located just south of the border with Denmark. West Frisian extends into modern Holland, while East Frisian is spoken north of Bremen along the coast and, logically enough in the North and East Frisian islands just off the coast. Niederdeutsch (Low German/Plattdeutsch) Low German (also called Netherlandic or Plattdeutsch) gets its name from the geographic fact that the land is low (nether,  nieder; flat,  platt). It extends from the Dutch border eastward to the former German territories of Eastern Pommerania and East Prussia. It is divided into many variations including: Northern Lower Saxon, Westphalian, Eastphalian, Brandenburgian, East Pommeranian, Mecklenburgian, etc. This dialect often more closely resembles English (to which it is related) than standard German. Mitteldeutsch (Middle German) The Middle German region stretches across Germanys middle from Luxembourg (where the Letztebuergisch sub-dialect of  Mitteldeutsch  is spoken) eastward into present-day Poland and the region of Silesia (Schlesien). There are too many sub-dialects to list here, but the main division is between West Middle German and East Middle German. Frnkisch (Frankish) The East Frankish dialect is spoken along Germanys Main river pretty much in Germanys very center. Forms such as South Frankish and Rhine Frankish extend northwesterly towards the Moselle river. Alemannisch (Alemannic) Spoken in Switzerland north along the Rhine, extending farther north from Basel to Freiburg and almost to the city of Karlsruhe in Germany, this dialect is divided into Alsatian (west along the Rhine in todays France), Swabian, Low and High Alemannic. The Swiss form of Alemannic has become an important standard spoken language in that country, in addition to  Hochdeutsch, but it is also divided into two main forms (Bern and Zurich). Bairisch-Ãâ€"sterreichisch (Bavarian-Austrian) Because the Bavarian-Austrian region was more unified politically-for over a thousand years-it is also more linguistically uniform than the German north. There are some subdivisions (South, Middle, and North Bavarian, Tyrolian, Salzburgian), but the differences are not very significant.   Note: The word  Bairisch  refers to the language, while the adjective  bayrisch  or  bayerisch  refers to  Bayern  (Bavaria) the place, as in  der Bayerische Wald, the Bavarian Forest.